It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA, and is used as a coenzyme. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts either to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or to adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Found in all known forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. It is also more common in individuals of Native American, African American, Hispanic, Asian, and Pacific Islander race or ethnicity.Chemical compound Interactive animation of the structure of ATPĪdenosine triphosphate ( ATP) is an organic compound that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Type 2 diabetes is slightly more common in males (6.9%) than in females (5.9%). Type 2 diabetes is more common among adult and older adult populations however, youth are demonstrating rising rates of type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is more common, as 95% of individuals with overall diabetes have Type 2 Diabetes. Therefore, individuals with more adipose deposition, typically with higher body fat content and an obese BMI, more commonly have type 2 diabetes. Additionally, as adipose cells are deposited in the patient’s liver and muscle, insulin resistance becomes a prominent feature of Type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes results when pancreatic beta cells cannot produce enough insulin to meet metabolic needs. Life expectancy for an individual with Type 1 diabetes is reduced by an estimated 13 years. Type 1 diabetes more commonly presents in childhood and persists through adulthood, equally affects males and females, and has the highest prevalence of diagnosis in European White race individuals. Without the insulin hormone, the body is unable to regulate blood glucose control. Type 1 diabetes is the autoimmune destruction of the body’s pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin hormone. Both are considered polygenic diseases, meaning multiple genes are involved, likely with multifactorial environmental influences including gut microbiome composition and environmental pollutants, among others. Īlthough not completely understood, Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes differ in their pathophysiology. The varied timings of fuel utilization throughout the day compose the cycle of glucose metabolism. Adipose tissue is most sensitive to insulin in the afternoon. This trough likely occurs because pancreatic beta-cells are also most responsive in the morning-similarly, glycogen storage components peak in the evening. Afternoon and evenings are a trough for oral glucose tolerance. In the morning, humans typically have their peak glucose tolerance for metabolism. Glucose tolerance is regulated with the circadian cycle. The process of synthesizing glycogen is termed glycogenesis and occurs when excess carbohydrates exist in the liver. In glycogenolysis, glycogen, the stored form of glucose, is released as glucose. Additionally, during fasting periods, the pancreas secretes glucagon, which begins the glycogenolysis process. Gluconeogenesis happens when there is glucose synthesis from non-carbohydrate components in the mitochondria of liver cells. During periods of fasting, when there is no glucose consumption, for example, overnight while asleep, the process of gluconeogenesis takes place. One enzyme, in particular, glucokinase, allows the liver to sense serum glucose levels and to utilize glucose when serum glucose levels rise, for example, after eating. Glycolysis in the liver is a process that involves various enzymes that encourage glucose catabolism in cells. Glucose metabolism involves multiple processes, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis, and glycogenesis. At the cellular level, most often, glucose is the final substrate that enters the tissue cells and converts to ATP (adenosine triphosphate).ĪTP is the energy currency of the body and is consumed in multiple ways including the active transport of molecules across cell membranes, contraction of muscles and performance of mechanical work, synthetic reactions that help to create hormones, cell membranes, and other essential molecules, nerve impulse conduction, cell division and growth, and other physiologic functions. On the contrary, in plants, glucose is synthesized from carbon dioxide and water (photosynthesis) and stored as starch. It serves as the major precursor for the synthesis of different carbohydrates like glycogen, ribose, and deoxyribose, galactose, glycolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins all ultimately break down into glucose, which then serves as the primary metabolic fuel of mammals and the universal fuel of the fetus. Glucose is central to energy consumption.
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